Some would say that we are nuts to go rock collecting in Poland in the middle of Winter. We thought that this was probably true, but as it turns out, this was one of the most interesting trips we have been on for a while. The whole venture begun, as usual, through an accidental conversation at a mineral fair. We had been selling the unusual polished Sphalerite and Galena slices, when someone asked where these came from. Curiosity got the better of us, and after an email exchange with one of our friends in Poland, we decided that this was too good an opportunity to pass by.

We begun by flying to Krakow, a historic city in the south of the country. At least that's what we had planned, but two days before departure the airline contacted us to say that the direct flight from London had been cancelled and we had to fly via Vienna instead. The journey proved uneventful except the plane from Vienna to Krakow was one of the smallest commercial flights we had ever taken. Sitting behind the pilot it was like flying the plane yourself. Nevertheless, the diversion was worth it because we had a fantastic view of the snow covered Tatry mountains, which we would not have seen if flying direct from the west.

Getting through the modern airport in Krakow was easy and an hour after arriving, we were warmly cosseted in our hotel, the temperature outside a cool minus 20°C. We had chosen Krakow for two reasons. First, it is one of the most beautiful European cities and we wanted to see for ourselves and second it lies in the south of the country, where most of the interesting mineralogical sites are. After a nights rest we spent the first day sightseeing and sampling the local cuisine and plenty of strong beer.

According to a legend, the name "Krakow" comes from the name of a legendary prince who killed a dragon and founded a medieval city on a rocky hill, above the Wisla river. Archaeological evidence doesn't support the dragon story but does show that the first traces of settlement date back several thousand years. At the end of 10th century Krakow was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland which was the ruled by a king of Piast dynasty. After this it became increasingly important, eventually becoming the capital of Poland and the seat of the Polish kings.

Eventually the capital moved to Warsaw, but 700 years of royal living has left the city with some of the most beautiful architecture in Europe. The city is dominated by its ancient castle and at the city's centre lies an immense square, divided in the middle by the beautiful cloth hall or Sukiennice. In one corner of the square stands the cathedral church of St Mary, famous for its different height towers, and the Hejnal fanfare played by a trumpeter every hour throughout the day and night.

Krakow's main square at night - minus 20 below zero	Wawel Castle towers above the city

The next day we arranged to visit the world famous salt mines at Wieliczka. First mentioned in 1044, the Wieliczka Salt Mine has been in continuous operation since the 13th century, and still is producing salt today. Nine centuries of mining has produced more than 300 kilometres of passages, as well as 2,040 caverns of varied size, descending to a total depth of 327 metres. It used to be one of the world's biggest and most profitable industrial establishments when salt was commercially a medieval equivalent of today's oil. The salt's origins go back to the Miocene epoch, 20 million years ago. The area was initially covered by a shallow sea, which gradually evaporated, depositing salt in thick layers. Over the intervening millennia these have became covered by a thick layer of overburden in some places more than 100 metres deep.

In the beginning of the mine's history, salt was extracted through evaporation of brine which percolated up from these underground deposits. Later, with the digging of wells to reach the brine, the salt deposits were discovered and then mined, a dangerous but profitable activity. The mines belonged to the Polish kings and by the 14th century contributed 30 percent of Poland's income. For example, the salt financed the founding of the Krakow Academy, later the Jagiellonian University, by Casimir the Great in 1364.

Wieliczka Mine - entrance and winding gear	Looking down the almost never ending staircase

An alternative explanation for the existence of the salt has become one of Poland's best loved legends. According to he story Poland can thank Queen Kinga for discovery of the salt mine. Kinga was the daughter of the Hungarian king Bela IV who married the Polish king Boleslaw the Modest in the 13th century. The story has Kinga throwing her engagement ring into the Maramures salt mine in Hungary. The ring miraculously travelled along with salt underground to Wieliczka. When arriving outside Krakow she told the locals to dig in a particular spot and to everyone's surprise they brought out a large piece of salt containing her ring. Well, that's the story anyway. Today, the scene is re-enacted in an underground chamber which depicts salt statues of a Polish miner presenting Kinga with her rediscovered engagement ring.

Entering the mine involves a long 64 m descent by stairwell and feels very much like a descent into Tolkien's Moria. The seemingly endless circular staircase eventually bottoms out at the base of the Danilowicz Shaft and from here the guided route proceeds for about 3.5km and takes approximately two and a half hours. Along the route are numerous tunnels and chambers, many containing salt statues carved out by miners of old. One of the most impressive sights is the timberwork used to support the enormous loads overhead. Interestingly, nearly all the wood is painted with lime which means that nearly all the passages and supports are a striking white. This is renewed frequently and we learned that the low-tech covering is an excellent fire retardant as it stops the wood from igniting. Also, the woodwork is held together with wooden pegs as iron is almost never used, apart from exceptional circumstances, because of the rapid corrosion by the salt.

Other attractions include old pits, chapels, caves, underground streams and even a large saline lake. But the best part is undoubtedly the Chapel of Blessed Kinga, excavated in 1896 and measuring 54 by 17 meters. The floor of this massive chamber lies 101 metres below the ground. The walls are covered with carved murals depicting biblical scenes and from the ceiling hang chandeliers whose individual crystals are all made of salt. At the far end lies a beautifully ornamented altar at which regular masses are held, not to mention numerous blessings and weddings. Imagine being married a hundred meters underground!

Queen Kinga presented with her engagement ring	Underground winding machine known as a Kierat

Eventually the route descends to a level 135 m below the surface and here the route divides. Visitors can either return to the surface by a fast and clanking miners cage or descend further by stair and visit the Salt Museum, which displays a large collection of old mining equipment, documents and other artefacts. Some of the machinery is enormous including huge horse-powered wooden winding engines found nowhere else in Europe. Either way, the break in the route provides an opportunity to rest or grab a bite to eat, because the mine's operators have kindly provided a restaurant serving snacks and refreshments. After a couple of beers we proceeded to the museum because we wanted to see the displays of the region's minerals.

The chamber where these are housed is itself carved out of salt and the display cases lie against the dark green walls. All are well lit, and contain spectacular crystallisations of Halite in its various colours and habits. The miners gave these forms different names and amongst these are varieties known locally as Kinga's Hair, after the long fibrous habit; Zielona, reflecting the dark green colour; Spizowa, the main type of salt deposited by the sea, and numerous other examples of crystalline Halite. Some of the cases displayed wooden artefacts like props and pick-handles which have become encased in crystallised salt. Some of these crystals were huge, demonstrating the high solubility and rapid crystallisation properties of this mineral. There is also a substantial collection of other evaporites including Anhydrite and Gypsum which were deposited alongside the salt. Many have excellent crystalline form, one specimen of anhydrite having elongated crystals more than one metre long. The centre isle houses a very interesting range of fossils which had once been living creatures in this Miocene sea. There are many different kinds of fish, numerous plants and even the odd reptile, including a very circular turtle. After taking many photos it was time to return to the surface. The journey was by the same miner's cage, but the ride is noisy, dark and cramped, so those with claustrophobia should consider this fact before going down.

Blessed Kinga's church 100 meters underground	Wieliczka's underground mineralogical display

The following day we had arranged to meet a geologist friend in Bochnia, a small town 50km east of Krakow. Andzej's full time job takes him all over the country prospecting for underground water but as a sideline he is well known local mineral dealer. He had promised us some spectacular specimens and we were not disappointed. Amongst the first he was offering for sale were the famous Polish agates from Nowy Kosciol, Rozana and Ploczki, a cluster of locations situated in the east of the country. Together these lie in the Kaczawskie Mountains, a range of highly metamorphosed rocks 400 million years old. These were later injected with volcanic material which gave rise to rich deposits of gold and copper. The gold was extensively mined and the name of the local town Zlotoryja reflects the once prosperous industry. The magmas also brought to the surface large amounts of silica, which later gave rise to the agate nodules by precipitating slowly into voids and vesicles in the volcanic basalts. The agates thus created are amongst the most beautiful in the world and range in size from 5cm to over one metre across.

Beautiful Polish Agate - Nowy Kosciol	Another superb example from Rozana

A fascinating feature of the deposits is that each of the locations has given rise to a very distinct set of patterns which make the agates very easy to identify, in terms of their exact occurrence. Another interesting, but unexplained fact, is that in this small geographical region has produced nearly all the main varieties of agate and chalcedony quartz. This suggests the complex interplay of many different hydrothermal processes and deposition environments. Today the region is very active in collecting terms. Many clubs and individuals visit the local pits in search of the nodules. The local quarries, which mine the local basalt, are very obliging and allow collectors access at weekends and when otherwise closed. Unfortunately, this being winter, we were not able to visit the location directly but nevertheless we acquired more than 20kgs of these beautiful specimens.

Next amongst his specimens were a number of Variscite and Wavellite clusters from Wisniowka. The excellent botryoidal form, green colouration and lustre of the Wavellites was at least as good as we have seen anything from the US. Should these become more widely available, they will certainly give the American specimens a run for their money. Also quite remarkable were a number of large pieces of Chrysoprase Quartz from Szklary. This is the type location for this variety of chalcedony quartz, and although better known from Australia, none has ever surpassed the quality of these Polish stones. Unfortunately due to several centuries of heavy demand, the mineral being highly sought-after for carving and jewellery, the deposits are almost entirely exhausted. Consequently this particular find may be one of the last and we were delighted to pick up several pieces of this beautiful rare stone.

Polish chrysoprase is the most beautiful in the world	Emeralds like these used to be common

Another box was full of wonderful barite from the Machow Mine in Tarnobrzeg. This mine is more better known for its massive crystals of native sulphur and at one time it was on of the world's top five producers. However those days are long-past and nowadays the scale of the operation is being scaled down. Fortunately with decreasing emphasis on commercial production the miners are paying more attention to other minerals and the mine has recently produced quality specimens of celestine and barite. Although mostly small, the crystals of the latter are perfect tabular plates and almost all are water-clear. This makes them almost unique and we have never seen gemmy crystals like these before. They are often aggregated into spherical clusters, making them even more attractive display specimens.

Having acquired several of these barites we were finally shown a selection of large Beryl crystals from Siedlimowice, near Zarowa. Most were partially enclosed in matrix and by virtue of their deep green colour they are effectively Emeralds. Poland is not well known as a source and this reflects the nature of the specimens. Few are particularly gemmy and none could be cut or faceted into quality stones. Nevertheless the Emeralds are large, many crystals reaching 6 or 7 cms in length, and almost all have excellent hexagonal cross-section and undamaged flat terminations. They originate in pegmatites, most often in areas of where these have been severely metamorphosed by high temperature and pressure. Specimens are obtained in quarries throughout the hills surrounding Siedlimowice.

Galena from Tarnowskie Gory	Sulphur from Machow Mine - now closing

After our meeting with Andrzej, we travelled back to Krakow and spent the next two days sightseeing. On the third day we had arranged to visit Olkusz and its zinc-lead mine, which gives rise to the specimens that had brought about this visit in the first place. The operation is not normally open to the public but a call to the mine office secured an invitation to visit. Laying just outside the small town the Pomorzany Mine is easily seen by its towering winding gear. On approaching the gates we received a very friendly welcome and were ushered into a large concrete building to change our clothes. We were told that the mine is very wet and consequently the apparel involved heavy yellow waterproof overalls, rubber boots and the obligatory hard-hat with lamp.

Descent into the mine was by cage and as we rattled downwards we found that this is one of the deepest mines in Poland. Coming to a halt 570m underground we could almost feel the weight of rock overhead. Pausing in a comfortable miner's rest area we were told a little about its history and geology. The operation is actually relatively recent. Mining in the region started in the mid 1960s, the first mine being named Olkusz after the town above. Pomorzany was the third mine to open and is the last to survive. The others closed in the late 1990s but Pomorzany continues due to particularly rich reserves. Surveys indicate that at the present rate of extraction the mine should remain viable until at least 2010. After that its future is uncertain.

Pomorzany Mine in winter's evening	Sphalerite and Galena slices are stunning

Geologically, the Olkusz deposits lie in local dolomites in a series of breccias with thickness up to 50m. The process of mineralisation and bracciation occurred alternatively giving rise to zoned breccia bodies. The clastic products of earlier stages of brecciation are cemented with younger sulphide mineralisation. Ore is present mainly in the bottom 3-6m of breccia structures. Breccia structures may pass into flat nests, pseudo-layers and lenses. Ore is separated from the host dolomite and from dolomite clasts by several centimetres thick transitional zone composed of smithsonite, Zn-dolomite and Fe-dolomite.

A notable feature is that the rocks act as a water trap and consequently the mine is extremely wet. The volume of circulating water is one of the highest in Europe. Water drips off walls and the ceiling and collects in pools on the floor. The corridors slope so the water can run off into sumps which are pumped by electric pumps. This explains the constant hum that pervades through the air. Mining is fully automatic, the ore being gouged out by large diggers that move forward on caterpillar tracks. The rock is fairly soft, so the rotating cutters at the front cut away the ore which falls onto a conveyor to be taken away to an underground processing plant. Behind the cutter is another machine which inserts large hydraulic props to prevent the roof from caving in. Its very impressive but dangerous work..

At this point we were ushered down a side tunnel and given a couple of small picks. The guide led us to a small chamber and directly in front of us was a thick glistening vein of lead ore. Indicating that we were free to dig he leaned back against a wall and watched with interest. Half an hour of hacking at the vein produced about 20kgs of material on the floor. This was duly collected in a sack and taken to the surface where after washing we inspected our haul. We were delighted to see several pieces of breccia to which adhered clusters of large galena cubes. Most of these were extremely well formed and many were fused into interesting twinned formations. Pieces from another area in the cavity were less crystalline but showed a very distinct banded structure consisting of alternating layers of Sphalerite, Galena and Marcasite. These are the famous pieces that are cut and polished into the beautiful slices which we had been selling. So at long last we had seen the original form of these specimens. Seeing our joy, the miners invited us into their dining room and an obligatory bottle of vodka was quickly placed on the table. The rest of the afternoon faded into a pleasant haze.

And so, after a week, it was time to depart. We had come to Poland expecting to see many minerals and locations, and we were certainly not disappointed. Although the country is not well known to collectors, it is nevertheless a very rich source of interesting species. Although none of these are particularly rare, they occur in many unusual forms and occurrences. We were certainly very surprised to see Polish Emeralds as well as the beautiful green Chrysoprase. The multicoloured agates were also outstanding. We were very sorry to leave, but we will certainly be back again.